The
Instruction of Amen-em-apt
Amen-em-apt, son of Kanakht for his son Hor-em-maakher
This
translation is based on all mentioned previous translations by Griffith, Lange,
Lichtheim & Brunner as well as on the hieroglyphic transcription of the hieratic by Lange and Griffith.
 |
The translation of The
Instruction of Amen-em-apt is part of my
Ancient Egyptian Readings (2016), a POD publication in paperback
format of all translations available at maat.sofiatopia.org. These
readings span a period of thirteen centuries, covering all important
stages of Ancient Egyptian literature. Translated from Egyptian originals,
they are ordered chronologically and were considered by the Egyptians as
part of the core of their vast literature.
The study of the sources, hieroglyphs, commentaries and pictures situating
the text itself remain on the website at no cost. |
PROLOGUE
the book
Beginning of the teaching for life,
the instructions for well-being,
every rule for relations with elders, (and)
for conduct toward magistrates.
Knowing how to answer one who speaks,
to reply to one who sends a message,
so as to direct him on the paths of life,
to make him prosper upon earth,
to let his heart enter its shrine,
steering (it) clear of evil,
to save him from the mouth of strangers,
to let (him) be praised in the mouth of men.
the author
Made by the overseer of
fields, experienced in his office, the offspring of a scribe of Egypt. The
overseer of grains, who controls the wedjat-measure, who sets the harvest dues
for his Lord, who registers the islands of new land, in the great name of his
Majesty, who records the markers on the borders of fields, who acts for the
King in his listing of taxes, who makes the land-register of the Black Land. The
scribe who determines the offerings for all the gods, who gives land-leases to
the people, the overseer of grains, [provider of] foods, who supplies the
granary with
grains.
The truly silent in Thinite Ta-wer, the justified in Ipu, who owns a pyramid on
the west of Senu, who has a chapel at Abydos, Amen-em-apt, the son of Kanakht,
the justified in Ta-wer.
the addressee
(For) his son, the youngest of his children,
the smallest of his family,
the devotee of Min-Kamutef,
the water-pourer of Wennofer,
who places Horus on his father’s throne,
who [guards] him in his noble shrine, who ---
the watcher of the mother of god,
inspector of the black cattle
of the terrace of Min,
who protects Min in his shrine :
Hor-em-maakher is his true name,
child of a nobleman of Ipu,
son of the sistrum-player of Shu and Tefnut,
and chief musician of Horus, Tawosre.
He says :
THE TEACHING
Chapter 1 : the charge to his son
‘Give your ears, hear the sayings,
give your heart to understand them.
It is good to put them in your heart, (but)
woe to him who neglects them !
Let them rest in the casket of your belly,
may they be bolted in your heart.
When there rises a whirlwind of words,
they will be a mooring-post for your tongue.
If You make your life with these in your heart,
You will find it a success.
You will find my words a storehouse for life,
(and) your body will be well upon earth.
Chapter 2 : do not
steal
Beware of robbing a poor wretch,
of attacking a cripple.
Do not stretch out your hand to touch an old man,
nor [snatch (at) the word of] a great one.
Do not let yourself be sent on a wicked errand,
nor be friends with him who does it.
Do not raise an outcry against one who attacks You,
nor return him an answer yourself.
He who does evil, the shore rejects him,
its floodwater carries him away,
the north wind comes down to end his hour,
it mingles with the thunderstorm, (and)
the storm cloud is tall,
the crocodiles are vicious.
You heated man, how are You now ?
He cries out, his voice reaches heaven.
It is the Moon who declares his crime.
Steer, (so that) we may ferry the wicked (over),
(as) we do not act like his kind !
Lift him up, give him your hand,
commit him (in) the hands of the god.
Fill his belly with bread of your own,
that he be sated and
see.
Another thing good in the heart of the god :
to pause before speaking.
Chapter 3 : prudence in
speech
Do not start a quarrel with a hot-mouthed man,
nor needle him with words.
Pause before an intruder, bend before an attacker,
sleep (on it) before speaking.
A storm that bursts like fire in straw,
such is the heated man in his hour.
Withdraw from him, leave him alone.
The god knows how to answer him.
If You make your life with these (words) in your heart, your children will
observe them.
Chapter 4 : the two
types of men
As to the heated man in the temple,
he is like a tree growing [indoors], (only)
a moment lasts its growth of [shoots], (and)
its end comes about in the [woodshed], (or)
it is floated far from its place,
the flame is its burial shroud.
The truly silent, who keeps apart,
he is like a tree grown in a meadow.
it greens, it doubles its yield,
it stands in front of its Lord,
its fruit is sweet, its shade delightful,
its end is reached in the garden.
Chapter 5 :
honest and tranquil service
Do not falsify the temple rations.
Do not grasp, and You will find profit.
Do not remove a servant of god,
so as to do favors to another.
Do not say : “Today is like tomorrow.”
How will this end ?
Comes tomorrow, today has vanished.
The deep has become the water’s edge.
Crocodiles are bared, hippopotami stranded.
The fish crowded together.
Jackals are sated, birds are in feast.
The fishnets have been drained.
But all the silent in the temple,
they say : “Re’s blessing is great !”
Cling to the silent, then You find life, (and)
your being will prosper upon earth.
Chapter 6 : steal no
land and eat from your field
Do not move the markers
on the borders of fields.
Nor shift the position of the measuring cord.
Do not be greedy for a cubit of land.
Nor encroach on the boundaries of a
widow.
The trodden furrow worn down by time,
he who disguises it in the fields,
when he has snared (it) by false oaths,
he will be caught by the might of the Moon.
Recognize him who does this on earth !
He is an oppressor of the weak,
a foe working to destroy your body.
The taking of life is in his eye,
his house is an enemy to the town,
his barns will be destroyed,
his wealth will be seized
from his children’s hands, (and)
his possessions will be given to another.
Beware of destroying the borders of fields,
lest a terror carries You away.
One pleases god with the might of the Lord
when one discerns the borders of
fields.
Desire your being to be sound.
Beware of the Lord of All !
Do not erase another’s furrow,
it profits You to keep it
sound.
Plow your fields
and You will find what You need,
You will receive bread from your own threshing-floor.
Better is a bushel given You by the god,
than five thousand through wrongdoing.
They stay not a day in bin and barn,
they make no food for the beer jar.
A moment is their stay in the granary,
comes morning, (and) they have vanished.
Better is poverty in the hand of the god
than wealth in the storehouse.
Better is bread with a happy heart
than wealth with vexation.
Chapter 7 : seek no
wealth
Do not set your heart on wealth !
There is no ignoring Shay and Renenet !
Do not let your heart go straying, (for)
every man comes to his hour.
Do not labor to seek increase,
what You have, let it suffice You.
If riches come to You by theft,
they will not stay the night with You.
Comes morning,
(and) they are not in your house ;
their place is seen but they are not there :
earth opened its mouth,
leveled them, swallowed them,
and made them sink into Duat, (or)
they made a hole as big as their size
and sank into the netherworld, (or)
they made themselves wings like geese
and flew away to the sky.
Do not rejoice in wealth from theft,
nor complain of being poor.
If the leading archer presses forward,
his company abandons him !
The boat of the greedy is left (in) the mud,
while the bark of the tranquil sails with the wind.
You shall pray to the Aten when he rises,
saying : “Grant me well-being and health !”
He will give You your needs for this life,
and You will be safe from fear.
Chapter 8 : speak no evil
Set your goodness in the belly of men,
then You are greeted by all.
One welcomes the Uraei-serpents.
One spits upon the Apopis-snake.
Guard your tongue against harmful speech,
then You will be loved by others.
You will find your place in the temple.
You will share in the bread offerings of your Lord.
When You are revered, and your coffin conceals You,
You will be safe from the power of god.
Do not shout “crime” against a man,
when the cause of (his) flight is hidden.
Whether You hear something good or evil,
do it outside where it is not heard.
Put the good remark on your tongue,
while the bad is concealed in your belly.
Chapter 9 : avoid the
heated
Do not befriend the heated man,
nor approach him for conversation.
Keep your tongue from answering your superior,
and take care not to insult him.
Let him not cast his speech to lasso You,
Nor give free rein to your answer.
Converse with a man of your own measure,
and take care not to
[vex].
Swift is speech when the heart is hurt,
more than wind [over] water.
He tears down, (and) he builds up with his tongue
when he makes his hurtful speech.
He gives an answer worthy of a beating,
for its weight is harm.
He hauls freight like all the world,
but his load is falsehood.
He is the ferryman of snaring words,
he goes and comes with quarrels.
When he eats and drinks inside,
his answer is (heard) outside.
The day he is charged with his crime,
is misfortune for his children.
If only Khnum came to him !
The potter to the fiery-mouthed man,
so as to knead his [states of mind].
He is like a young wolf in the farmyard,
he turns one eye against the other,
he causes brothers to quarrel,
he runs before every wind like clouds,
he dims the radiance of the Sun,
he flips his tail like the crocodile’s young,
[he gathers himself together, crouched.]
His lips are sweet, his tongue is bitter.
A fire burns in his
belly.
Do not leap up to join such a one,
lest a terror carry You away.
Chapter 10
: speak without injuring
Do not force yourself to salute the heated man,
for then You injure your own heart.
Do not say “Greetings !” to him falsely,
while there is terror in your belly.
Do not speak falsely to a man,
the god abhors it !
Do not sever your heart from your tongue, (so)
that all your strivings may succeed.
You will be weighty before the others,
and secure in the hand of the god.
God hates the falsifier of words.
He greatly abhors he who quarrels in the belly.
Chapter 11 : abuse no
poor
Do not covet a poor man’s goods,
nor hunger for his bread.
A poor man’s goods are a block in the throat,
it makes the gullet vomit.
He who makes gain by lying oaths,
his heart is misled by his belly.
Where there is fraud, success is feeble, (and)
the bad spoils the good.
You will be guilty before your superior
and confused in your speech.
Your pleas will be answered by a curse,
your prostrations by a beating.
The big mouthful of bread You swallow,
You vomit it, and You are emptied of your gain.
Observe the overseer of the poor,
when the stick attains him.
All his people are bound in chains,
and he is led to the executioner.
(And) if You are released before your superior,
yet You are hateful to your subordinates.
Steer away from the poor man on the road.
Look at him and keep clear of his goods.
Chapter 12 : always be
honest
Do not desire a noble’s wealth,
nor give a big mouthful of bread.
If he sets You to manage his property,
shun his, and yours will prosper.
Do not [seize the word] with a heated man,
nor befriend a hostile man.
If You are sent to transport straw,
stay away from its container.
If a man is observed on a fraudulent errand,
he will never (again) be sent on another occasion.
Chapter 13 : write no
falsehoods and acquit debt
Do not cheat a man (through) pen on scroll !
The god abhors it !
Do not bear witness with false words,
so as to brush aside a man by your
tongue.
Do not assess a man who has nothing,
and thus falsifies your pen.
If You find a large debt against a poor man,
make it into three parts,
forgive two, let one stand.
You will find it a path of life.
After sleep, when You wake in the morning,
You will find it as good news
!
Better is praise with the love of men
than wealth in the
storehouse.
Better is bread with a happy heart
than wealth with vexation.
Chapter 14 : be dignified
Do not recall yourself to a man,
nor labor to seek his hand.
If he says to You : “Here is a gift.”,
no have-not will refuse it.
Do not blink at him, nor bow your head,
nor turn aside your gaze.
Salute him with your mouth, say : “Greetings !”
He will cease, and You succeed.
Do not rebuff him in his approach, (for)
[on another occasion, he will be taken away.]
Chapter 15 : cheat not
with your pen
Do the good, and You will prosper [as I] !
Do not dip your pen to injure a man, (for)
the finger of the scribe is the beak of the Ibis,
beware of brushing it aside !
The Ape dwells in the House of Khmun,
his eye encircles the Two Lands.
When he sees one who cheats with his finger,
he carries his livelihood off in the flood.
The scribe who cheats with his finger,
his son will not be enrolled.
If You make your life with these (words) in your heart,
your children will observe them.
Chapter 16
: do not corrupt the balance
Do not tamper with the scales, nor falsify the weights,
nor diminish the fractions of the
measure.
Do not desire a measure of the
fields,
(and then) neglect those of the
treasury.
The Ape sits by the
balance,
his heart is in the
plummet.
Where is a god as great as Thoth ?
Who invented these things and made them ?
Do not make for yourself deficient
weights,
they are rich in grief through the might of god.
If You see someone who
cheats,
keep your distance from
him.
Do not covet
copper,
disdain beautiful
linen.
What good is one dressed in
finery,
if he cheats before the god
?
Faience disguised as
gold,
comes morning, (and) it turns to
lead.
Chapter 17
: do not corrupt the measure
Beware of disguising the
wedjat-measure,
so as to falsify its
fractions.
Do not force it to
overflow,
nor let its belly be
empty.
Measure according to its true
size,
your hand clearing
exactly.
Do not make a bushel of twice its
size,
for then You are headed for the
flood.
The bushel is the Eye of
Re,
it abhors him who trims.
A measurer who indulges in
cheating,
his Eye seals (the verdict) against
him.
Do not accept a farmer’s
dues,
and then assess him so as to injure
him.
Do not conspire with the
measurer,
so as to defraud the share of the
residence.
Greater is the might of the threshing floor
than an oath by the great throne.
Chapter 18 : be not
over-anxious
Do not lie down at night in fear of tomorrow :
“Comes day, how will tomorrow be ?”
Man ignores how tomorrow will be.
The god is ever in his perfection.
The man is ever in his
failure.
The words men say are one thing, (but)
the deeds of the god are another.
Do not say : “I have done no wrong.”,
and then labor to seek a quarrel.
The wrong belongs to the god.
He seals (the verdict) with his finger.
There is no perfection before the god,
but there is failure before him.
If one labors to seek perfection,
in a moment, he has marred it.
Keep firm your mind,
(and) steady your (physical) heart.
do not steer with your tongue.
If a man’s tongue is the boat’s rudder,
the Lord of All is yet its pilot.
Chapter 19 : do not
commit perjury
Do not go to court before an official
in order to falsify your words.
Do not vacillate in your answers,
when your witnesses accuse.
Do not labor (with) oaths by your Lord,
(with) speeches at the hearing.
Tell the truth before the official,
lest he lay a hand on
You.
If another day You come before him,
he will incline to all You say,
he will relate your speech to the Council of Thirty,
(and) it will be observed on another occasion.
Chapter 20 : be honest as
judge or scribe
Do not confound a man in the law court,
in order to brush aside one who is right.
Do not incline to the well-dressed man,
and rebuff the one in rags.
Do not accept the gift of a powerful man,
and deprive the weak for his sake.
Ma’at is a great gift of god.
He gives it to whom he wishes.
(Indeed), the might of him who resembles him,
saves the poor from his tormentor.
Do not make for yourself false documents,
they are a deadly provocation,
they (mean) the great restraining oath,
they (mean) a hearing by the herald.
Do not falsify the oracles in the scrolls,
and thus disturb the plans of god.
Do not use for yourself the might of god,
as if there were no Shay and Renenet.
Hand over property to its owners,
thus do You seek life for yourself.
Do not raise your heart’s desire in their house,
or your bones belong to the execution block.
Chapter 21 : be
reticent
Do not say : “Find me a strong superior,
for a man in your town has injured me.’
Do not say : ‘Find me a protector,
for one who hates me has injured me.”
Indeed You do not know the plans of god,
and should not weep for tomorrow.
Settle in the arms of the god,
your silence will overthrow them.
The crocodile that makes no sound,
the dread of it is ancient !
Do not empty your belly to everyone,
and thus destroy respect of You.
Broadcast not your words to others,
nor join with one who bares his heart.
Better is one whose speech is in his belly,
than he who tells it to cause harm.
One does not run to reach perfection,
one does not create (it) to harm it.
Chapter 22 : provoke
no enemy
Do not provoke your adversary,
so as to (make) him tell his thoughts.
Do not leap to come before him,
when You do not see his doings.
First gain insight from his answer,
then keep still, and You will succeed.
Leave it to him to empty his belly,
know how to sleep, he will be found out.
Grasp his feet, do not harm him.
Be wary of him, do not ignore
him.
Indeed, You do not know the plans of god,
and should not weep for
tomorrow.
Settle in the arms of the god, (and)
your silence will overthrow them.
Chapter 23 : mind your
table manners
Eat no bread in the presence of an official,
and then set your mouth before (him).
If You are sated, pretend to chew,
content yourself with your saliva.
Look at the bowl that is before You,
and let it serve your needs.
An official is great in his office,
as a well is rich in drawings of water.
Chapter 24 : have
discretion
Do not listen to an official’s reply indoors,
in order to repeat it to another outside.
Do not let your word be carried outside,
Lest your heart be aggrieved.
The heart of man is a gift of god,
beware of neglecting it.
The man at the side of an official (truly)
his name should not be known.
Chapter 25 : respect
god’s will
Do not laugh at a blind man.
Nor tease a dwarf.
Nor cause hardship for the lame.
Do not tease a man who is in the hand of the god,
nor be angry with him for his failings.
Man is clay and straw,
the god is his builder.
He tears down, he builds up daily.
He makes a thousand poor by his will.
He makes a thousand men into chiefs
when he (the god) is in his hour of life.
Happy is he who reaches the West
when he is safe in the hand of the god.
Chapter 26 : respect
seniors
Do not sit down in the beerhouse,
in order to join one greater than You.
Be he a youth great through his office,
or be he an elder through
birth.
Befriend a man of your own measure,
Re is helpful from afar.
If You see one greater than You outdoors,
walk behind him respectfully.
Give a hand to an elder sated with beer,
respect him as his children would.
The arm is not hurt by being bared.
The back is not broken by bending it.
A man does not lose by speaking sweetly,
nor does he gain if his speech is straw.
The pilot, who sees from afar,
he will not wreck his boat.
Chapter 27
: do not revile an elder
Do not revile one older than You,
(for) he has seen Re before You.
Let (him) not report You to the Aten at his
rising,
saying : “A youth has reviled an old
man.”
Very painful before Re,
is a youth who reviles an
elder.
Let him beat You while your hand is on your chest,
let him revile You while You are silent.
If the next day You come before him,
he will give You food in
plenty.
A dog’s food is from its master,
(and)
he barks to him, who gives it.
Chapter 28 : be generous
to the poor
Do not seize a widow when You find her in
the fields,
and then fail to be patient with her reply.
Do not refuse your oil jar to a stranger.
Double it before your brothers.
God loves him who honors the poor,
to him who worships the wealthy.
Chapter 29 : travel
honestly
Do not prevent people from crossing the river,
if You stride freely in the ferry.
When You are given an oar in the midst of the deep,
bend your arms and take it.
It is no crime in the hand of the god,
[If the sailor does not welcome
You.]
Do not make yourself a ferry on the river,
and thenlabor to seek its
fare.
Take the fare from him who is wealthy,
and let pass him who is
poor.
EPILOGUE
Chapter 30
Look to these thirty chapters :
they inform, they educate,
they are the foremost of all books,
they make the ignorant wise.
If they are read to the ignorant,
he is cleansed through them.
Be filled with them, put them in your heart,
and become a man who interprets them,
one who explains as a teacher.
The scribe who is skilled in his office
is found worthy of being a courtier.’
colophon
That is its end.
Written by Senu, son of the divine father Pemu. |
4. Remarks.
►
the culmination of the wisdom genre
All instructions are composed in a rhythmical style,
marked by symmetrical sentences, called the "orational style" (Lichtheim,
1976, p.98). When needed, as in the assassination narrative of the
Instruction of Amenemhat, it turns into prose or
becomes poetical, as in the hymn to the creator-god in the Instruction
addressed to Merikare. But these features are not the reason for the
excellence of Amen-em-apt's wisdom teaching.
"He has put aside the commonplaces of advice, and whole
regions of moral warning are left untouched ; but he draws on his personal
experience as an administrator of land to teach certain lessons that he
wished to impress upon his son, and at the same time set up a higher standard
of morality than his predecessors who are known to us had done. The
description of the book in the Preface promises both success in life and moral
welfare to the obedient listener ; in other Egyptian teachings the practical
overshadows the spiritual, but in Amenophis' teaching religion and morality
are the chief motives."
Griffith,
1926, p.227, my italics.
All Egyptian wisdom instructions envisioned an "ideal man" (Lichtheim,
1976, p.146). Already in the wisdom discourse of
Ptahhotep, he lacked all martial characteristics. The Egyptian sage was a
man of peace, constructive and generous with his wealth. If the Old Kingdom sage
was still very aware of Pharaoh and his position in society, Amen-em-apt is
content with a humble position and modest material means. Instead, inner
qualities are promoted : self-control, tranquility, kindness towards others &
honesty are opposed to "the heated" man, who vents his passions and emotions
without self-mastery, and is inclined to evil, in particular dishonesty.
The teaching divides "inner" & "outer". Man walks in the outer world and finds
that fate and destiny, i.e. the physical manifestation of the will of the deity,
rule everything. People may say what they like ; at the end of the day the
oracle of the deity decides. The sage accepts this wholeheartedly, for he knows
that the plans of the deity are not to be crossed. The shrine of his heart is
the temple of the "inner" deity, and his ways are thus in accord with the plans
of the deity.
He has mastered the "inner" conflict between his passions and his mind, namely
between the icons of emotions and the symbols of proto-rational cognition,
between "belly" and "heart". This Platonic division "avant la lettre" (cf.
Plato's two horses and the later Stoic "apatheia") is the fundamental
existential tension and if badly managed the first cause of moral evil,
namely a twisted mind, heated passions and unwholesome actions that make one
strand in life and prepare for oneself the wrath of the deity in the afterlife.
God abhors falsehood, heatedness and dishonesty. All of this, of course, in the
ante-rational mode of cognition.
►
the deity of Amen-em-apt
Was our sage a monotheist ? Besides the repetition of
words as "the god", "god" & "the Lord of All", the teaching also invokes
separate deities such as : Re, the Eye of Re, Thoth, Khnum, Shay, Renenet, the
Aten, the Uraei-serpents, the Apophis snake, Maat, as well as unspecified divine
activities (giving, building, planning, directing, etc.) and functions (the
hands of god, the arm of god, the might of god, etc.). Thoth is invoked several
times (the Ape, the Moon), and the question is asked where the deities as great
as he are ! As in Late New Kingdom
Amun-theology, the
deities are manifestations, appearances & transformations of the "nameless god",
one & millions.
Amen-em-apt is not a monotheist, but a henotheist. God is One in essence but
millions in manifestation. The Divine powers are specialized manifestations of
the same One god, and a "Solar" signature may be attributed to his company :
Re : the "old" creator-god from afar ;
Aten : the physical face of Re ;
Thoth : the power of the written & spoken word, the recorder of the balance,
vizier of Re ;
Maat : truth and justice - the order of creation - daughter of Re ;
Knum : the maker of mankind, controller of the inundation of the Nile - soul of
Re ;
Shay & Renenet : the manifestation of the plan of god in human affairs,
functions of Thoth ;
the Uraei-serpents : the might of Pharaoh, son of Re ;
the Apophis serpent : the assailer of Re, mastered by Seth.
The compositional excellence of this company, in tune
with the "New Solar Theology" of its time, but not balancing to any un-Egyptian
exclusivity, gives this instruction a literary unity which underlines the
henotheist choice of our sage. Monotheism can not be read into this, for sage
Amen-em-apt still thinks constellational, albeit in an exclusively Solar
fashion. Moreover, this choice is an integral and meaningful part of the
literary structure of the text. The Lord of All is beyond, but not against
the other deities, i.e. opposed to independent manifestations of himself
("jealous" as the Old Testament would have it). The great One god
remained hidden and unnamed. They were his active powers, his theophanies.
Besides the Solar inspiration, Amen-em-apt's "company of gods" reflects a
cognitive component. This was part of all known Egyptian instructions, but here
the role of Thoth is clearly underlined. The "might of the Moon" & the Ape of
Hermopolis (the only city in the teaching) also point to the god of time,
healing, medicine, writing and magic. Were the deities Shay & Renenet part of
this Hermopolitan thought strand ? They ruled an individual's life-span and well
as the events that happened in it. Conceptually at least, they fall under the
category of time, ruled by Thoth, who is also the "Master of Maat".
This allows us to divide this company in two sides : cosmic & mental :
-
cosmic : Re, Aten, Maat, Khnum, Uraei-serpents ;
-
mental : Thoth, Shay & Renenet.
It should be remarked that in the Alexandro-Egyptian
philosophical Hermetica, the same division operates,
namely as the distinction between God (the Sun, the Decad) and Hermes (the
Divine Nous, the Ennead).
►
the heart of Amen-em-apt
To the traditional use of the word "ib" ("heart"), namely "will, desire, mind,
motor control, direction" and its various intentional states, is added the dimension of personal piety, for the
"inner god" abides in the shrine of the heart (Prologue, line 9). The sage is a spiritual person,
who communicates with his god "in his mind". Besides his high moral standards of
action, he confirms the importance of a personal experience of divinity. This
goes hand in hand with the "noetic" quality of the teaching's pantheon.
In 18:16 (using as determinative F51), the physical heart is clearly
distinguished from the intentional states which it represents, such as
cogitation, volition & motor control (the peripheral pulses were thought to
reflect the beating of the heart, caused by air -
Nunn, 1996).
►
Amen-em-apt and the "words of the
wise" in the Book of
Proverbs
The remark of Budge pertaining to the influence of the teaching on Jewish
religious literature was taken up and confirmed by Erman, Sethe, Griffith &
Simpson (1926). Lichtheim (1976) speaks of a
consensus among scholars that there is no priority of the Hebrew text, nor a
common lost Semitic text, but a "literary relationship" between the teaching of
Amen-em-apt and the Book of Proverbs (the oldest part of which is dated
ca.920 BCE, namely chapters 10 to 24). She writes : "it
can hardly be doubted that the author of Proverbs was acquainted with the
Egyptian work and borrowed from it". Especially Proverbs line
22:21 speaks in that sense, and introduces the Hebrew section on the "words of
the wise" : "I have written down thirty sayings for you.
They contain knowledge and good advice and will teach you what the truth really
is. They when you are sent to find it out, you will bring back the right
answer".
Indeed, the proposed literary relationship is most prominent & direct in that
section of Proverbs called (in the Massoretic, traditional Hebrew text)
"the words of the wise." (chapters 22:17 - 24:22). Here the "remarkable
similarity of ideals and ideas" are closest and most numerous, although Simpson
remarks that the Hebrew text is less fresher and vigorous, as if in Proverbs
the teaching returns in an abbreviated form.
Gressman (1925), found a literal "thirty" proverbs in this section of the
Hebrew book of Proverbs, and the inference that it was ultimately derived
from Amen-em-apt's teaching "would appear to be irresistible".
We invite the
reader to read this wisdom section of the Proverbs (22:17 - 24:22,
composed ca.920 BCE) and savor the following correspondences :
|
PROVERBS |
AMEN-EM-APT |
prologue
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30 |
prologue
2, 11
9
-
6
-
23
7
11, 12
9
6
30
-
prologue, 1, 30
2
1, 23, 26
-
-
-
9, 3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
6
2
-
- |
Beside these, the following resemblances are striking (Proverbs
in bold) : 6:21 - 1:3-5 ; 15:16 - 6:33-36 ; 16:9 - 13:13-16
; 16:11 - 16:5-10 ; 17:5 - 25:1-5 ; 18:6 - 9:13 ; 19:21
- 18:4-5 ; 20:19 - 21:13-14 ; 20:22 - 21:1-8. Gressman also discovered other important resemblances in the prophetical,
historical & legal literature of the Hebrews, namely Jeremia, 17:5-8,
Psalm 1, 1 Samuel, 2:6ff and in the Book of Job (4:17-20).
"The Lord kills and restores to life ;
he sends people to the world of the dead
and brings them back again.
He makes some poor and others rich;
he humbles some and makes others great.
He lifts the poor from the dust
and raises the needy from their misery."
1 Samuel, 2:6ff
"Happy are those
who reject the advice of evil people,
who do not follow the example of sinners;
or join those who have no use for God.
Instead, they find joy in obeying the Law of the Lord,
and they study it day and night.
They are like trees that grow beside a stream,
that bear fruit at the right time,
and whose leaved do not dry up.
They succeed in everything they do.
But evil people are not like this at all ;
they are like straw that the wind blows away.
Sinners will be condemned by God
and kept apart from God's own people.
The righteous are guided and protected by the Lord,
but the evil are on the way to their doom.
Psalm 1
"Can anyone be righteous in the sight of God
or be pure before his Creator ?
God does not trust his heavenly servants ;
he finds faults even with his angels.
Do you think he will trust a creature of clay,
a thing of dust that can be crushed like a moth ?
Someone may be alive in the morning
but die unnoticed before evening comes.
All that he has is taken away,
he dies, still lacking wisdom."
Book of Job, 4:17-20
"The Lord says :
'I will condemn those who turn away from me
and put their trust in human beings,
in the strength of mortals.
They are like bushes in the desert,
which grow in the dry wilderness,
on salty ground where nothing else grows.
Nothing good ever happens to them.
But I will bless those who put their trust in me.
They are like trees growing near a stream,
and sending out roots to the water.
They are not afraid when hot weather comes,
because their leaves stay green ;
they have no worries when there is no rain ;
they keep on bearing fruit."
Jeremiah, 17:5-8.
The influence of Egyptian wisdom teachings on the religious literature of Israel
is part of the larger context of the interaction between these two
civilizations. We know that it was during the Ramesside age that the tribes of
Israel became a nation, and much of Israel's knowledge of Egypt, as reflected in
their literature, resulted from contacts with this period. Although these contacts will be the object of a separate study, let us
briefly discuss the foundational event of Israel's history : the Exodus.
Historians are far from unanimous concerning the date of the Exodus, the flight
of the Jews from the "house of bondage". The "low" hypothesis, situates this
founding event in the late Middle Kingdom (ca. 1938 - 1759),
"high" hypothesis places it in the thirteenth century (XIXth Dynasty,
ca. 1292 - 1188). Various arguments have
been advanced to evidence both positions, but archaeological findings in
Canaan, as well as Biblical chronology (for example the 480 years
between the construction of the Temple of Solomon and the Exodus) proved to be
inconclusive. As the nature of Biblical sources is not historiographic but
ideological and etiological, its chronology is seriously in doubt.
Modrzejewski (1995)
advanced
the "high" hypothesis on the basis of a few chronological indications furnished
by the Biblical account which converges with some historical data. In Exodus
1:11, we read : "So the Egyptians put slave-drivers over
them to crush their spirits with hard labour. The Israelites built the cities
of Pithom and Rameses to serve as supply centers for the king." (my
italics). This reference is to the new capital of Pharaoh Rameses II (ca.1279 -
1213 BCE), called "Per-Ramesses" (Pa-Ramesses, Peramesse, Piramesse), "the
Estate of Ramesses". If we take the Biblical account seriously, Pharaoh Rameses
II was the "new king, who knew nothing about Joseph" (Exodus, 1:8).
But "Rameses" could well have been a generic name, indicative of earlier Semitic
settlements at Avaris.
Indeed, the new city was a suburban territory of what had been the capital of the Hyksos, Avaris.
Its formal name was "the House of Ramesses, Beloved of Amun, Great of
Victories". Its splendor and vitality was great. A large palace, private
residences, temples, military garrisons, a harbor, gardens and a vineyard were
designed for it. It was the largest and costliest city of Egypt. The original
royal palace covered four square miles. Abandoned at the end of the XXth
Dynasty, many of its monuments were transported to the nearby city of Tanis.
Another important historical element is the twelve-line poem that ends the
famous Stele of Pharaoh Merneptah (ca.1213 - 1203 BCE), the son of Rameses II,
also known as the "Stele of Israel" or the "Poetical Stele". In this poem, we
read : "Israel is wasted, his seed is bare." The text of the stele celebrates
the victories of Pharaoh over the Libyans, and in this brief poetical epilogue
sums up the submission of the diverse "Asiatic peoples", with "iisriAr"
listed before the Khor (Palestine and part of Syria).
"The princes are prostrate, saying : 'Peace !'
Among the Nine Bows (the nations) none raised his head.
Devastated is Tjehenu (Libya), Khatti at peace.
Canaan is captive with every evil.
Carried off is Ashkelon ; seized upon is Gezer.
Yanoam is made as that which does not exist.
Israel is wasted, his seed is bare.
Widowed is Khor before Egypt.
All who roamed have been subdued,
by the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Banere-meramun,
Son of Re, Merneptah, Content with Maat,
given life like Re every day."
Stele of Merneptah, final poem.
To "iisriAr", sounding something like "eesrah-er", two
determinatives were added : a throw stick (T14), indicating the Israelites were
foreign, and a sitting man and woman over three vertical lines (a plural
marker). This last determinative typically indicated the Israelites were a
nomadic group of peoples without a fixed city-state home (for which
another determinative would have been used - N25). But because of the several
blunders of writing in the stela, the argument is not conclusive. The Merneptah Stele
dates from the fifth year of the king's reign, i.e. ca. 1208 BCE. At that time,
Moses is supposed to have already left Egypt and crossed the desert. But the "promised land" had not yet been conquered,
no new kingdom established, while Pharaoh
Merneptah claimed to have wasted Israel's seed ...
"When all is said and done, the date of 1270 appears to be
the best possible hypothesis for their departure from the land of Egypt." -
Modrzejewski,
1995, p.16.
This Ramesside Exodus Theory date is open to criticism.
Alternatively, it has been proposed that the lack of archeological evidence to support
an Exodus based on this theory is due to the fact the Biblical story of the Jews in Egypt
(arrival and rise of Josef, the multiplication of the Jews, their enslavement,
the plagues, the Exodus and the conquest of Canaan) needs to be
placed much earlier, namely in the Middle Kingdom (XIIth Dynasty). Finds at
Avaris would indicate Josef's Pharaoh to be Amenemhat III
(ca. 1818 - 1773) and the end of the Middle Kingdom (ca. 1759) would have been
caused by the destruction of Egypt as the result of the weakening of the kingdom
by the 10 plagues (as described by Ipuwer ?) under Amenemhat IV (1773 - 1763),
Moses' Pharaoh who forgot about Josef ... The Exodus
would have destroyed Egypt's army, prompting foreigners to invade the
country (cf. the Hyksos around 1630). Joshua's Conquest would also then have
been much earlier, at the end of the Middle Bronze Age (Jericho fell in the 16th
century BCE). But this then conflicts with the Biblical story that only 480
years separate the Exodus from the construction of the Temple of Solomon. The
first Jewish temple in Jeruzalem was most likely built by Josiah, who governed
Judea from 639 to 609 BCE (Finkelstein & Silberman, 2006), three hundred years
after Solomon !
Most scholars agree with the Ramesside Exodus
Theory. The debate continues ...
|
